The Nuremberg Trials Essay example - 1253 Words

The Nuremberg Trials On June 22, 1945 representatives from France, Great Britain, Russia, and the United States started to plan the prosecution of the main Axis war criminals. These representatives had to establish a fair way of trying the criminals because the world had never seen a situation like the one at hand. The result of the meeting was the International Military Tribunal. The Tribunal’s constitution set forth the principles the defendants were subject to. The panel of Allied representatives decided to hold the trial in Nuremberg. Nuremberg was chosen because the city served as the center of Nazi activities and offered nice facilities (Keeshan 3). Lawyers from the Allied powers submitted an indictment to the†¦show more content†¦The actions the German soldiers performed on the Jews were incomprehensible. The Nazis used the legal system of Germany to oppress the Jews currently living in Germany. Through the legal system the Nazis stole Jewish property a nd took away the Jews civil rights. Jews would be round up and taken to concentration camps where most would eventually perish. At the height of the Holocaust Jews were being mass murdered by injection or means of gas (Rosenbaum 13). Historians believe that there are thousands of war criminals that avoided arrest from the prosecutors. It is thought that over seven thousand criminals took refuge in Argentina to avoid being charged with war crimes (Rosenbaum 81). Many of these fugitives could actually be alive today. However, the twenty-four defendants the prosecution did indict were some of the worst villains of the war. Almost all of the defendants were Nazi Party members and others belonged to organizations such as the Reichstag, the Council of Ministers, and the Secret Cabinet Council (Keeshan 67). Even though the prosecution was only able to indict twenty-four defendants, the effects of the Nuremberg Trials were monumental. The Tribunal hoped to punish the main men responsible for all of the atrocities. The Allied Powers felt that trials had to be set up because if the criminals were simply charged without trial then itShow MoreRelatedThe Trials Of The Nuremberg Trials1345 Words   |  6 Pagesis it possible that the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials, which were held by the Allied Powers after World War II, did not execute this man? The Nuremberg Trials were a series of thirteen trials held between 1945 and 1949 to prosecute some Nazi war criminals. The trials were held in Nuremberg, Germany, because its courthouse was not damaged from the war. The four Allied Powers held the hearings, and the best-known trial was the Trial of Major War Criminals (â€Å"Nuremberg Trials†). The fact of the matterRead MoreThe Wartime Of The Nuremberg Trials4114 Words   |  17 PagesWhereas some 5,000 Nazi’s were charged with war crimes, the Nuremberg trials were designed specifically to prosecute high r anking Nazi officials with whom the authority for the commission of heinous atrocities rested. The Nuremberg Trials would therefore be marked in history as one of its kind. Prior to its formation, war crimes were limited to the military courts of the individual countries and for the very first time the Nuremberg Trials would mark the inception of the concept of collective guiltRead MoreEssay on The Nuremberg Trials2224 Words   |  9 PagesThe Nuremberg Trials More than half a century has passed since the end of World War Two and to this day it is still difficult to fully understand the severity of what was by far the most destructive war in human history. More than sixty million people were killed during World War Two and more than half of those were innocent town’s people. Among the dead were over six million Jews, which was two thirds of the total living race in Europe at the time. Beyond these general statistics were thousandsRead MoreThe Nuremberg Trials Rewritten Essay858 Words   |  4 Pagesin their shoes? No one understands what truly goes on in someone else’s mind. For that reason alone judging one another is wrong. â€Å"The year world war II finally ended, a courtroom in Nuremberg, Germany, became the scene of what would be called the greatest trials of the world† (www.pbs.org)†. When the Nuremberg trials began Nazi’s were judged on what role they played during Hitler’s reign. Though, instead of the German and Jewish citizens judging the Nazi’s it was the Americans. The major discussionRead MoreThe Trials Of The Nuremberg1630 Words   |  7 PagesPaper - Nuremberg Trials The Nuremberg Doctors Trial of 1946 is the preeminent case recognizing the importance of medical ethics and human rights specifically about human research subjects. The defendants in the trials include Nazi leadership, physicians, and investigators prosecuted for conducting unethical and inhumane medical experiments on civilians and prisoners of war resulting in extreme pain, suffering, permanent injury and often death. The Nuremberg Code, borne of these trials, establishesRead MoreThe Nuremberg Trials1601 Words   |  7 PagesNuremberg Trials Andrew Dangler University of Phoenix Abstract: A brief look at the Nuremberg Trials and some of the people involved. It steps upon the problems leading to the start of the trials including three of the doctors, three of the experiments performed on prisoners, and the judgment of three people involved with carrying out the vulgar experiments. Also included are three people who decided to commit suicide instead of facing certain death after going before a jury. The three peopleRead MoreNuremberg Trials2619 Words   |  11 Pagesindicted for aggressive war, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Of the twenty-four twenty-one were taken into custody and put on trial; these were known as the Nuremberg Trials. These trials started on November 20th 1945 and were the first ever war crime tribunal. The Trials were held by the Allied forces of World War II and were held in the city of Nuremberg in Bavaria Germany out of the Palace of Justice. Accusations placed against them were for their involvement in the Nazi Party during WorldRea d MoreThe Trials Of The Nuremberg Trials984 Words   |  4 Pagesjustice. The first international trial, the Nuremberg Trials brought many of these nazi war criminals to justice. The Nuremberg Trials were separate trials to bring Nazis to justice. It involved many people, not just the nazis. The trials had a positive outcome, however some may find it surprising. Indeed, the Nuremberg Trials will be remembered as the first international trials, bringing criminals to justice. To begin with, the Nuremberg Trials are the first trial to deal with crimes against humanityRead MoreThe Importance Of The Nuremberg Trials955 Words   |  4 PagesThe Nuremberg Trials: A Step Towards International Law Starting in 1945, a series of trials occurred that helped the international court system form and develop into what is is today. These set of trials were called the Nuremberg Trials. Whereas some described the Nuremberg Trials as a â€Å"sanctimonious fraud† and a â€Å"high-grade lynching party, the international military tribunal at nuremberg was an event of world-historical importance because it was the first successful international criminal courtRead MoreThe Nuremberg Of Trial ( 1946 )1127 Words   |  5 Pages1. The Nuremberg Doctors Trial (1946) Brief Summary: The Nuremberg Doctor’s trial of 1946 involves human experimentation performed by the Nazi doctors. These physicians were accused of conducting torturous â€Å"experiments† with concentration camp inmates. During these studies, physicians conducted treatments that were not permitted and caused severe injuries to the participants, and in some cases, participants died as a result of this. Prisoners were left to freeze to study more on hypothermia. Later

Planning a Scheme of Work Free Essays

Planning Scheme of Work – Literacy Level 2 The produced scheme of work is aimed at 16 to 18 year old learners who are enrolled on the â€Å"Entry to Employment† (â€Å"E2E†) programme. The programme is intended for unemployed young adults to assist them in improving their prospects of employment with training or of entering higher education. The programme is designed to include personal and social skills, vocational skills and Basic and Key Skills. We will write a custom essay sample on Planning a Scheme of Work or any similar topic only for you Order Now In this context, much learning is intended to embed Basic and Key Skills into other areas of learning and vice-versa Session Content Sessions are based on the Skills for Life Teacher Resource Pack issued by the DfES, which is produced to support National Standards for Adult Literacy. These resources are designed to be based on real life situations, aimed at adults and to cover the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum. Six modules have been used, one at level one and five at level two. I have divided each module over two sessions each lasting for two hours of classroom time. Opportunities to complete tasks beyond the scope of the session are available as all learners have free study periods, which are supported by tutors. Extension activities using spelling and grammar exercises have been included and would also be completed in free study time. I have decided on the sequence of topics based on Reece Walker (2003, p239) suggesting that easiest topics could be tackled first, so starting the programme with level 1 activities. I have also taken sessions directly relevant to E2E learners, i. e. job search, and used these for the first few sessions as I have observed this type of learner questioning the relevance of various activities they are asked to undertake on the wider E2E programme. Teaching and Learning Methods Sessions are started with a directed section, explaining objectives to the learners, using visual aids (interactive whiteboard and data projector) and or audio clips to demonstrate the learning point of the session and stimulate interest in the topic. This part of the session lasts about 10 to 15 minutes and is followed by an opportunity for learners to work on their own, in small groups or more usually in pairs, using printed or on-line resources, for around 40 to 50 minutes. During this time learners are supported by the tutor. After this a break is taken and the above process is repeated after break, focusing on the next part of the session, again starting with visual aids, usually in the form of a data projector. The final 10 minutes are used to re-iterate points made and check understanding through questioning. The scheme of work relies on the use of visual and audio stimuli in conjunction with individual learning as many learners on the E2E programme have had poor experiences of conventional classroom technique. A. T. Graham (1999, P. 26) Says: It is interesting to note the following figures for what we remember (learn? ) from our various senses: Sight 75% Hearing 13% Feeling 6% Smell 3% Taste 3% Feedback from learners of these methods is almost unanimously positive, especially towards the use of technology and visual aids. Assessment Methods At the end of each session, learners are encouraged to complete the module checklist and detail areas that they feel confident with or need more practice with. Each session incorporates tasks to be completed during the session and completion of the tasks is supported and observed by the tutor. This presents the opportunity to continually assess each student’s progress as well as assist any student encountering difficulty. Although not part of the scheme of work, students sit diagnostic assessments at the start of the programme and further diagnostics as well as practice tests later in the programme. Usually a second diagnostic at six weeks followed by mock tests at 10 and 12 weeks. Self Evaluation A self-evaluation form has been included for completion at the end of each session. The form examines the effectiveness of tutor and learner activities, resources and where relevant, achievement. The largest space is reserved for learner feedback as learners are asked for feedback after each session and asked to complete feedback forms on a regular basis. These, together with improvements in diagnostic and mock test scores form the basis of evaluation for this programme. Learning Theory Motivation A key element of the scheme is that it encourages independent learning. Within each structured session there are opportunities for the learners to work on their own or in pairs with support from a tutor. During this time learners are not simply given worksheets and expected to complete them, each learner has access to their own resources which they follow at their own pace and work through with discussion between groups of learners and the tutor. So, for example, during a session on newspaper articles, after a class discussion of two examples of newspaper articles students would be asked to find their own examples on the Internet, examine the differences between articles themselves and discuss their findings with the tutor one to one or in a small group. In this way learners take control of their own learning and experience the satisfaction of knowing that they are not simply filling in blanks. Learners on the E2E programme then have equal time in non-structured sessions to carry on with any unfinished work, carry out their own research and complete any extension activities. Geoffrey Petty (2001, P. 306) States that: There is a consensus amongst management theorists that giving employees control over how they work greatly increases their sense of responsibility, motivation and effectiveness. Unsurprisingly, giving students control over their own learning empowers them in the same way. Independence is not an arbitrary foundation for a teaching method: it resonates with a deep human need – the need for freedom; the need to be in control. This is a need felt most strongly by adolescents†¦ 16 to 18 year old learners, many of whom have achieved little or nothing at school respond well to being given control of their own learning. Resources The E2E programme benefits from being well resourced, especially with technology. This has an impact on the engagement of learners, most 16 to 18 year olds being unimpressed with anything less than cutting edge technology. Every learner has access to a broadband enabled, high specification computer on which to complete individual work, all resources are available across the network for printing and or editing by the learner, meaning that the learner is in control of his or her own version of the Skills for Life Resource Pack. So, for example, in lesson five, a resource page for searching the Internet would be projected to the whiteboard, we would be able to discuss the question â€Å"can you name any more search engines? † and the tutor would be able to note some examples on the screen for learners to see. Learners would then be able to look at their own version of this resource page, type in their answers and print off a hard copy for their file. They would then be able to access the Internet and continue with the activity. Equality of Opportunity As discussed, the scheme of work is based around the Skills for Life Teacher Resource Pack issued by the DfES, the introduction to which states that the materials are intended to be â€Å"broad-based† and â€Å"adult-appropriate†. Within the materials, names, voices and pictures of characters are ethnically diverse and represent both genders. It is however the job of the tutor to be sensitive to learners and I have replaced 2 articles on terror alerts in lesson nine after awkwardness during the session amongst Muslim students. Wheelchair access to the building and wireless laptop computers are available to students with disabilities. Two of the fixed computers in the classroom are configured for large fonts. Conclusion The Entry to Employment programme is aimed at a group of learners who have previously struggled in education and so challenge tutors to find new ways to engage them. Independent learning is encouraged by the Learning and Skills Council for E2E and more sources than that quoted support this method. The use of I. C. T. s also encouraged and this scheme of work relies heavily on it although a much less â€Å"high tech† version could be delivered if this was required. Although many learners are engaged by the technology, it cannot take the place of a tutor or teacher, merely add to the learning experience and a good understanding of the subject is impossible to replace. Bibliography A. T. Graham (1999) Planning for Teaching Learning, Resource Handbook Geoffrey Petty (2001) Teaching Today , Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd Reece Walker (2003) Teaching, Training and Learning ,Sunderland: Business Education Publishers Ltd. How to cite Planning a Scheme of Work, Essay examples

Hofstedes Five Dimensions free essay sample

Geert Hofstede was born in 1928 in the Netherlands. He had an interesting life pretty much filled with cultural shocks. Around his twentieth birthday, he decided to leave his native Netherlands and go to explore other places in the world. He went to do an internship as an assistant ship’s engineer in Indonesia; this was his first time out of the country and it proved to be his first cultural shock. Being immersed in a completely different culture, he was keen to observe and compare the cultural differences between the Netherlands and his new host country. Following his work experience in Indonesia, he followed his heart – a girl – to England, where he experienced his second cultural shock. This greatly influenced his career path, and led him to study cross-cultures. Later on in life, he became a renowned researcher in cross-cultural differences, and even created a model which could be applied to the various cultures, to help understand their behaviours. Hofstede’s â€Å"Five Cultural Dimensions† include Power Distance (which focuses on the degree of equality, or inequality, between people in the country’s society); Individualism (which focuses on the degree the society reinforces individual or collective achievement and interpersonal relationships); Masculinity (which focuses on the degree the society reinforces, or does not reinforce, the traditional masculine work role model of male achievement, control, and power); Uncertainty Avoidance (which focuses on the level of tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity within the society i. . unstructured situations); and last but not least, Long-Term Orientation (which focuses on the degree the society embraces, or does not embrace, long-term devotion to traditional, forward-thinking values). Although Geert Hofstede’s model was innovative, he was not the first cultural researcher to propose a model describing ways in which cultures can be analysed. Edward Twitchell Hall, Jr. (born in 1914 and died in 2009) was also an anthropologist – like Hofstede. He developed a concept that described the way people behave in â€Å"personal spaces† – called Proxemics. In the 1950s, E. T. Hall taught inter-cultural communications skills, wrote several books, and developed the concepts of high- and low- context cultures (saying what you mean, as opposed to adorning your sentences, and letting the setting explain the meaning of the statement). â€Å"He is considered a founding father of intercultural communication as an academic area of study†. Although Geert Hofstede did not, per se, base himself on E. T. Hall’s model and books on cross-cultural differences, we see that both researchers are fascinated by the same thing: foreign culture analysis. Both were amazed at the cultural differences even within the same geographical zones; when Hofstede went to England, he was shocked by the behaviour of the people there compared to his native country, the Netherlands. After receiving his PhD, Hall continued to study and analyse countries ranging from Europe, through the Middle East, and Asia – never tiring of the richness in the differences of the cultures he encountered. G. Hofstede’s work is not an â€Å"extension† of Hall’s proxemics, but his dimensions brought Hall’s analyses a step further. Many critics say that Hofstede’s dimensions are superficial, that they are not applicable to all situations and contexts. However, in my view, they have the benefit of being well defined and can be used as a tool to further our understanding of what makes us different. This understanding is obviously an advantage, especially in the professional world, which crosses so many frontiers in today’s globalized context. It might seem simplistic to read too much into a greeting, a handshake, dress codes, etc. ut many a business relationship can be built or fail due to the lack of proper etiquette. Hofstede’s five dimensions aim to steer the uninitiated through the maze of cultural differences that can so easily trip up the inexperienced professional traveller. A manager from an Anglo-Saxon country where there is a low Power Distance Index, for example, needs to keep his â€Å"respectful† distance when dealing with companies in a country where there is a high Power Distance Index. If he is too familiar, he can be considered insulting. In Asian cultures, this is particularly noticeable. Similarly, in a society with a high degree of Masculinity, such as in the Middle East, Hofstede’s dimension tools are useful to define and better avoid the pitfalls of monochromic behaviour. Male domination can lead to an over ridged step-by-step approach, lacking in the colourful multi-tasking, more feminine way of achieving objectives. The same can be said for Individualism. In many cultures, such as southern European / Latin cultures, collectivism is much more pronounced than individualism. This also leads to a fundamentally different approach to getting things done, the former spreading the responsibilities throughout the group, the latter demonstrating individuals looking for personal rather than collective achievement (for example German citizens). Where Uncertainty Avoidance is concerned, according to Hofstede’s ranking, a Low Uncertainty Avoidance indicates that the culture in question is not concerned about ambiguity, and is tolerant of a large variety of opinions. This is the opposite of a society which, in order to reduce or rule out uncertainty, establishes a multitude of rules and regulations to control every situation. These societies are the â€Å"yes or no† cultures; they don’t accept â€Å"maybe†. Finally Hofstede’s fifth dimension, the Long-Term Orientation dimension, which he added to the first four five years afterwards, focussed on the Confucian dynamism scale. He found that negotiating with the Chinese as a race was frustrating, as their long-term vision hindered them from making rapid decisions within an urgent timeline. Many criticisms have been voiced about Hofstede’s â€Å"Five Cultural Dimensions†, many â€Å"irritated, condescending, or ridiculing reviews (e. g. Cooper, 1982; Roberts Boyacigiller, 1984)†. These comments were not the only, or the harshest, of the reviews Hofstede received – his most frequent and negative critique is Brendan McSweeney, PhD, and his most serious and noteworthy critique is Nigel Holden. Professor B. McSweeny criticises the fact that Hofstede’s work relies on fundamentally flawed assumptions. One of Hofstede’s assumptions for example is: â€Å"every micro-location is typical of the national†. This assumption is built on the hypothesis that there is a â€Å"uniform national culture†, based on findings gleaned from a group of people working at IBM. McSweeney puts this assumption in doubt, claiming that this does not reflect a proper representation of the supposed â€Å"national uniformity†. McSweeney pertains that Hofstede’s surveys cannot be used to measure culture, because they are unsuitable and fundamentally flawed. He says that we would need a â€Å"leap of faith† to believe that Hofstede actually identified the cultures he studied. Hofstede based his research on nations as units of analysis, which was not the most appropriate in McSweeney’s view. Nations in general do not regroup only the nationalities of the country itself, indeed there may be populations of many immigrant groups from all types of other countries also, and culture cannot be calculated in such a way. According to Gary Ferraro, â€Å"Culture is a code of attitudes, norms and values† which by definition, goes way beyond the simplistic dimensions described by Hofstede. Geert Hofstede worked for IBM when he first sent out the survey from which he gathered the information to construct his â€Å"five dimensions† model. Thus it was relatively easy and uncomplicated for him to collect the information: he had no fees to pay, no people to find, and he knew that he would receive answers from all of the employees (over 116,000 replies, from 66 national subsidiaries). Although IBM is an immense company, it should not have been presumed however that the information gathered was fully representative. Certainly not every culture was present and moreover, of the cultures represented, some had a much larger head count pool than others. In my view it is also an error to restrict the information source to employees of one company as, it takes a certain type of individual to work with a company such as IBM, and therefore the results cannot avoid a certain bias. Nigel Holden argues that Hofstede’s methods are similar to the chemical regrouping of the elements, classifying cultures in social â€Å"periodic tables†. Moreover, he suggests that things have changed over time, comportment and values in the workplace have evolved, politics have changed, and Hofstede’s dimensions are no longer valid. He says that a more correct approach must be â€Å"related to managerial activity in the new geo-economy with its emphasis on global networking, organizational learning and knowledge management†. Holden adds that he finds Hofstede’s dimensions â€Å"intellectually numbing†. Hofstede doesn’t take all this criticism lying down of course. In an interesting rebuttal in his book entitled â€Å"Culture’s consequences† (second edition) he argues, in the section â€Å"Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed† that such a novel approach is bound to meet with strong resistance and scepticism. He claims to have made a paradigm shift in the studies of different cultures and how they interact thereby provoking an initial outcry from a host of experts in the field. In his self-defence, Hofstede also refers to Malcolm Chapman – a British anthropologist, and not, as he underlines, an accountant (! who said â€Å". . . Hofstede’s work became a dominant in? uence and set a fruitful agenda. There is perhaps no other contemporary framework in the general ? eld of â€Å"culture and business† that is so general, so broad, so alluring, and so inviting to argument and fruitful disagreement. . . .† A loyal admirer, Chapman, also points out that Hofstede is a genuine self-critic and argues that even if his work is based on potentially flawed methodology, Hofstede makes up for this through his experience and expertise. Chapman argues that Hofstede’s work is useful even if it has a high level of generalization. So, is Hofstede’s work pertinent, relevant and a useful tool to use in cross-cultural analyses? Certainly, if one is to take into consideration the superficiality and generalizations that result from the application of the five dimensions, then – Yes. Moreover Hofstetde’s work was quite ground breaking at the time and it deserves merit if even for its novelty. It must not be taken however for the absolute truth. As Professor Barry Gerhart (University of Wisconsin-Madison) and Professor Meiyu Fang (National Central University, Taiwan) point out another problem with Hofstedes research is that the variance explained by cultural and national differences, shown by the results, is only from 2 to 4 percent. So 96 to 98 percent is due to something else! None the less, Hofstede’s body of work is certainly a good place to start for anyone curious to make a first step into the fascinating world of cross cultures!